A. Background / Highlight of Resources / Key Concepts
Health Disparities
In recent decades, health organizations have paid particular attention to the social determinants of health. While doing so, they often focused on underrepresented groups. Socioeconomically disadvantaged groups have been focused upon for a variety of a reasons. Often, concerns about infant health are the cause for attention. According to New York City's Summary of Vital Statistics (2016) "Compared to non-Hispanic whites, the infant mortality rate for non-Hispanic blacks was 3.1 times higher, and the rate for Puerto Ricans was 1.3 times higher. Since 2015, this disparity has increased slightly for non-Hispanic blacks (3.0 times) and declined for Puerto Ricans (2.3 times) (p.9). Even without any biological basis for race to account for, non-Hispanic blacks face drastically higher infant mortality rates. This indicates a requirement for continued research and a monitoring of the racial/ethnic and neighborhood disparities which continue to persist. Researchers intend to lessen these disparities by first acknowledging the issues. In doing so, many researchers found an odd corollary among health, food and migration.
Latin American Migration
While many researchers expected the health of immigrants to improve in the United States, it was found that many Latin American groups experienced the reverse effect. Even though factors generally believed to improve health are often more common in the United States, this proved to not be the case. Many Latin American groups, in particular Mexicans, experienced a decrease in health status upon moving to the United States. Other ethnic groups which were wealthier, had greater medical service and were better educated turned out to have better health outcomes than their counterparts. This has greatly concerned researchers and has led to a need for fresh research perspectives. According to Donato (2003), "Explanations of the robust health of Mexicans have emphasized cultural factors, such as the strong ties among Mexican family members that sustain orientations that lead to healthful behavior and reduce the deleterious effects of poor socioeconomic status of health" (p.455).
Latino Health Paradox
With further study of the Latino (Heath) Paradox, research could form greater understandings on ideal health conditions. This would improve the human condition in terms of health and longevity. Interviews show that many immigrants face "major changes in dietary patterns as a result of migration... [such as increased meat consumption] "...and because people often purchase less expensive cuts of meat, they also ingest more fats" (Guarnaccia, 2011, p.112). Guarnaccia also highlights that in many regions, American supermarkets charge more for a pound of vegetables (like broccoli) than for the same amount of beef. Cut off from native dietary routines, many of the Latinos studied expressed a decline in health despite increased socioeconomic conditions.
Health Disparities
In recent decades, health organizations have paid particular attention to the social determinants of health. While doing so, they often focused on underrepresented groups. Socioeconomically disadvantaged groups have been focused upon for a variety of a reasons. Often, concerns about infant health are the cause for attention. According to New York City's Summary of Vital Statistics (2016) "Compared to non-Hispanic whites, the infant mortality rate for non-Hispanic blacks was 3.1 times higher, and the rate for Puerto Ricans was 1.3 times higher. Since 2015, this disparity has increased slightly for non-Hispanic blacks (3.0 times) and declined for Puerto Ricans (2.3 times) (p.9). Even without any biological basis for race to account for, non-Hispanic blacks face drastically higher infant mortality rates. This indicates a requirement for continued research and a monitoring of the racial/ethnic and neighborhood disparities which continue to persist. Researchers intend to lessen these disparities by first acknowledging the issues. In doing so, many researchers found an odd corollary among health, food and migration.
Latin American Migration
While many researchers expected the health of immigrants to improve in the United States, it was found that many Latin American groups experienced the reverse effect. Even though factors generally believed to improve health are often more common in the United States, this proved to not be the case. Many Latin American groups, in particular Mexicans, experienced a decrease in health status upon moving to the United States. Other ethnic groups which were wealthier, had greater medical service and were better educated turned out to have better health outcomes than their counterparts. This has greatly concerned researchers and has led to a need for fresh research perspectives. According to Donato (2003), "Explanations of the robust health of Mexicans have emphasized cultural factors, such as the strong ties among Mexican family members that sustain orientations that lead to healthful behavior and reduce the deleterious effects of poor socioeconomic status of health" (p.455).
Latino Health Paradox
With further study of the Latino (Heath) Paradox, research could form greater understandings on ideal health conditions. This would improve the human condition in terms of health and longevity. Interviews show that many immigrants face "major changes in dietary patterns as a result of migration... [such as increased meat consumption] "...and because people often purchase less expensive cuts of meat, they also ingest more fats" (Guarnaccia, 2011, p.112). Guarnaccia also highlights that in many regions, American supermarkets charge more for a pound of vegetables (like broccoli) than for the same amount of beef. Cut off from native dietary routines, many of the Latinos studied expressed a decline in health despite increased socioeconomic conditions.
Perceived Control
I found that researching this topic would contribute to my own understanding of health. It is important to observe which factors are within one's control to affect. Other options exist under the degrees of perceived control. Thompson and Schlehofer (2008) found that behavioral theory states "individuals learn behaviors by observing similar others receive reinforcement or punishment for similar behaviors" (p.14). They go on to explore how many potential decisions are limited by socioeconomic or environmental factors. Thompson and Schlehofer maintain that the mere perception of control has wide health consequences. Without the perception of control, many people feel powerless to improve their circumstances. "If people do not feel they have the skills to change a particular behavior (e.g., stop smoking), they are unlikely to exert the effort. Second, research on animals and humans has found that feelings of helplessness generally decrease attempts to change one's situation even when effective action is available" (p.1). states Thompson and Schlehofer (2008). In essence, subjects of study can be psychologically hindered from the pursuit of improved outcomes because of their current socioeconomic conditions.
Race & Food Justice
Questions of food injustice and "food deserts / apartheids" cannot be considered without race. Race is one of the key social determinants of health but it is often confused for a biological reality. Race is a purely social construct, but it is one of the greatest determiners of resource distribution. For the purpose of clarity, "How Race Becomes Biology: Embodiment of Social Inequality" seeks to define race. Epidemiological research has showed drastic racial inequalities concerning health. Gravlee (2009) found that "In 2004, the overall age-adjusted death rate for black Americans was more than 30% higher than it was for white Americans... [while] Age-adjusted death rates from diabetes, septicemia, kidney disease, and hypertension and hypertensive renal disease were all more than two times higher among African Americans than among whites" (p.48). The results were shockingly mimicked by the health outcomes and mortality rates of infants. Even though race is not biologically mandated, it is a vital social category which can affect potential health qualities. Gravlee (2009) suggests the implementation of a "measurement strategy that incorporates the cultural meaning of skin color" (p.53) without acquiescing to the biological conception of race.
I found that researching this topic would contribute to my own understanding of health. It is important to observe which factors are within one's control to affect. Other options exist under the degrees of perceived control. Thompson and Schlehofer (2008) found that behavioral theory states "individuals learn behaviors by observing similar others receive reinforcement or punishment for similar behaviors" (p.14). They go on to explore how many potential decisions are limited by socioeconomic or environmental factors. Thompson and Schlehofer maintain that the mere perception of control has wide health consequences. Without the perception of control, many people feel powerless to improve their circumstances. "If people do not feel they have the skills to change a particular behavior (e.g., stop smoking), they are unlikely to exert the effort. Second, research on animals and humans has found that feelings of helplessness generally decrease attempts to change one's situation even when effective action is available" (p.1). states Thompson and Schlehofer (2008). In essence, subjects of study can be psychologically hindered from the pursuit of improved outcomes because of their current socioeconomic conditions.
Race & Food Justice
Questions of food injustice and "food deserts / apartheids" cannot be considered without race. Race is one of the key social determinants of health but it is often confused for a biological reality. Race is a purely social construct, but it is one of the greatest determiners of resource distribution. For the purpose of clarity, "How Race Becomes Biology: Embodiment of Social Inequality" seeks to define race. Epidemiological research has showed drastic racial inequalities concerning health. Gravlee (2009) found that "In 2004, the overall age-adjusted death rate for black Americans was more than 30% higher than it was for white Americans... [while] Age-adjusted death rates from diabetes, septicemia, kidney disease, and hypertension and hypertensive renal disease were all more than two times higher among African Americans than among whites" (p.48). The results were shockingly mimicked by the health outcomes and mortality rates of infants. Even though race is not biologically mandated, it is a vital social category which can affect potential health qualities. Gravlee (2009) suggests the implementation of a "measurement strategy that incorporates the cultural meaning of skin color" (p.53) without acquiescing to the biological conception of race.
Food Access
One study which manages to balance such a strategy, is ‘‘Trying to Eat Healthy’’. Using a participatory response method and photo elicitation, Valera (2009) expresses concerns about how "neighborhoods with a high proportion of ethnic and racial minorities have fewer healthy food choices and less access to fresh fruit and vegetables" (p.300). These issues of limited food access would inspire many of the questions of my health assessment. The study focuses providing an emic perspective on community access to healthy foods. Valera continues to point out that "the increase in food insecurity has contributed to the growing epidemic of obesity and diabetes in New York city among low-income women" (p.301). The scarcity regarding, affordable yet health food choices has been linked to growing diet related illnesses such as diabetes and obesity. "Health Effect of Migration: U.S. Chinese in and outside the Chinatown" focuses the blame upon environmental factors. King and Locke (1987) warn that "perhaps 85% of cancer is related to environmental and dietary factors, [and that] it seems to be advisable to look into the degree of acculturation among different segments of the population" (p.571). King and Locke maintain that the search for sources of health disparities in minority groups will highlight potential solutions to current public health crises.
One study which manages to balance such a strategy, is ‘‘Trying to Eat Healthy’’. Using a participatory response method and photo elicitation, Valera (2009) expresses concerns about how "neighborhoods with a high proportion of ethnic and racial minorities have fewer healthy food choices and less access to fresh fruit and vegetables" (p.300). These issues of limited food access would inspire many of the questions of my health assessment. The study focuses providing an emic perspective on community access to healthy foods. Valera continues to point out that "the increase in food insecurity has contributed to the growing epidemic of obesity and diabetes in New York city among low-income women" (p.301). The scarcity regarding, affordable yet health food choices has been linked to growing diet related illnesses such as diabetes and obesity. "Health Effect of Migration: U.S. Chinese in and outside the Chinatown" focuses the blame upon environmental factors. King and Locke (1987) warn that "perhaps 85% of cancer is related to environmental and dietary factors, [and that] it seems to be advisable to look into the degree of acculturation among different segments of the population" (p.571). King and Locke maintain that the search for sources of health disparities in minority groups will highlight potential solutions to current public health crises.